{"@context":"http://iiif.io/api/presentation/3/context.json","id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/iiif/tt4fn11m95/manifest","type":"Manifest","label":{"en":["Thackray, Arnold, Knowledge Through Numbers"]},"logo":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/organizations/logo_images/000/000/004/original/ISULogo.png?1601681107","metadata":[{"label":{"en":["Preferred Citation"]},"value":{"en":["Knowledge Through Numbers. Iowa State University Lecture Series (RS 8/6/53). Special Collections and University Archives, Iowa State University Library, Ames, Iowa."]}},{"label":{"en":["Publisher"]},"value":{"en":["Iowa State University. Special Collections and University Archives"]}},{"label":{"en":["Rights Statement"]},"value":{"en":["There are no restrictions on access. (access)","This item is protected by copyright and/or related rights. You are free to use this item in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. 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this,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=40.29,42.36"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/11","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and they do that at several universities each year","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=42.36,46.2"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/12","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"is Town\u0026amp;Gown relationships in the area","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=47.28,51.33"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/13","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"where the lectures are being given.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=51.33,54.515"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/14","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"And (indistinct) receive the questionnaire,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=54.515,57.267"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/15","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"of the follow-up questionnaires from them","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=57.267,59.416"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/16","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"a couple of days ago asking various 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(indistinct)","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=82.09,84.217"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/25","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"we've waited a year and a half the second one.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=84.217,86.733"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/26","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"But I thought, I might at least try to find out","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=87.99,90.55"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/27","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"how many people are here, who are not university people.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=90.55,94.337"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/28","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"And if you're not directly connected with the 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him.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=100.707,103.233"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/31","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"How many people here are not connected with the university?","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=104.14,107.09"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/32","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"One, two...","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=108.06,109.237"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/33","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"(audience laughs)","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=111.543,114.376"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/34","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Well, I might be glad to say we have three 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future,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=123.55,125.94"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/37","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"I can tell you the third and final lecturer in this series","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=125.94,130.94"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/38","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"will be Professor Garland 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quarter","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=138.95,141.68"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/41","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"on eugenics, eugenics movement in the United States.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=141.68,146.213"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/42","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Our speaker for tonight is not 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D. Bernal's pioneering study","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1540.99,1543.91"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/406","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"of the social function of science published in 1939.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1543.91,1548.4"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/407","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"These together paved the way for those systematic efforts","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1548.4,1553.4"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/408","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to measure science,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1554.4,1556.0"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/409","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"which have characterized government action","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1556.0,1558.78"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/410","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"over the last generation.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1558.78,1560.593"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/411","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Indeed, in the case of Great Britain,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1561.52,1563.43"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/412","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"the government appointed Barlow committee,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1563.43,1566.38"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/413","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"whose 1946 report was to set the tone","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1566.38,1570.37"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/414","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"of British science policy for the next quarter century.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1570.37,1574.68"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/415","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"That committee was staffed by such left-wing scientists","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=1574.68,1579.25"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/416","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and confreres of Barlow as P.M.S. 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society,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3380.4,3384.25"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/933","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and thus to guarantee not decline,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3384.25,3386.32"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/934","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"but unprecedented growth in due course","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3386.32,3389.09"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/935","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"on that high elite level,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3389.09,3391.03"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/936","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"which so much concerned Babbage and Maul.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3391.03,3393.633"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/937","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Reflection on Babbage's failures","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3395.54,3398.1"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/938","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"shared equally by his most passionate supporters","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3398.1,3401.25"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/939","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and his most determined opponents","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3401.25,3403.87"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/940","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"highlights both the difficulties","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3403.87,3406.55"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/941","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"in obtaining consensus indicators,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3406.55,3410.04"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/942","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"indicators on which all parties can agree,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3410.04,3413.81"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/943","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and the dangers inherent in a too narrow,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3413.81,3416.97"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/944","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"a historic definition of measures appropriate","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3416.97,3420.67"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/945","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"for a saying the health of science.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3420.67,3423.883"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/946","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Let me conclude, and in concluding say","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3427.0,3430.81"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/947","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"that there can be, I think no single conclusion.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3430.81,3435.423"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/948","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"The aim of my lecture to you has been to explore","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3436.86,3441.86"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/949","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"the complexities which necessarily the set any attempt","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3443.53,3448.53"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/950","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to measure the health of science.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3449.93,3453.65"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/951","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"And it may be that at this juncture","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3453.65,3456.87"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/952","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"you want to throw up your hands and say,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3456.87,3460.637"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/953","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\"Well, let's not bother about doing it.\"","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3460.637,3465.18"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/954","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"And I would only remind you that whatever you think","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3465.18,3468.96"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/955","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"people out there are doing it","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3468.96,3471.77"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/956","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and are making major policy and funding decisions","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3471.77,3476.71"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/957","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"on the basis of the measures","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3476.71,3478.8"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/958","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"that they are even now constructing.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3478.8,3481.513"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/959","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Thank you.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3482.75,3483.729"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/960","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"(audience applauds)","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=3483.729,3486.729"}]},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["English [Transcript]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28929/annotation/961","type":"Annotation","motivation":"subtitling","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/file_transcripts/associated_files/000/028/929/original/AV168025_a.vtt?1622849920","format":"text/vtt","language":"en"},"target":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/file_transcripts/associated_files/000/028/929/original/AV168025_a.vtt?1622849920"}]},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28930","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["AV168025_a.txt [Transcript]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755/transcript/28930/annotation/962","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"- The talk tonight is actually one of a series of Fox. The whole series is funded by a grant from the and Sperry Hutchinson foundations. These are the people who are responsible for S\u0026H Green Stamps Yes that. One of the things they are interested in when they sponsor a series of lectures like this, and they do that at several universities each year is Town\u0026Gown relationships in the area where the lectures are being given. And receive the questionnaire, of the follow-up questionnaires from them a couple of days ago asking various questions about how the lectures had gone. And one of the questions was how have the lectures improved the Town\u0026Gown relationships in your town. And I didn't know quite how to respond to this. So I don't know quite how to respond to it. We've only had one lecture in the series, and that was about this time last year. And then of course not we've waited a year and a half the second one. But I thought, I might at least try to find out how many people are here, who are not university people. And if you're not directly connected with the university, or if you're a spouse of someone who is on the university staff represent him. How many people here are not connected with the university? One, two... Well, I might be glad to say we have three people who are not connected with the university as well are. For those of you who are looking forward to the future, I can tell you the third and final lecturer in this series will be Professor Garland Allen, who was at Washington University of St. Louis, who'll be talking sometime during the spring quarter on eugenics, eugenics movement in the United States. Our speaker for tonight is not The speaker for tonight is Professor Arnold Thackray from the University of Pennsylvania. He's in the Department of History and Sociology of Science at University of Pennsylvania. This is one of the major departments in the country. So far as the history of science is concerned. He is a former chairman of that department. He was the chairman for several years. This immediate past year, he spent in Oxford... Doing research there in Oxford that is. For those of you who think Oxford Iowa. The PhD is from Cambridge university, at Oxford Cambridge not Cambridge I hope. And he is going to talk tonight. His topic is knowledge through numbers and science to be measured. And I give you Arnold Thackray.\r\n\r\n- Thank you, David. I should tell you before I speak that I did take the precaution of getting in touch with S\u0026H Green Stamps before I came. And they did assure me that there is a free gift to everyone who stays to the end of the lecture. It's over two millennia since Horace decreed that there is measure in all things. Those uncomfortable with this perception, haven't displayed undue alarm. After all, they may effortlessly reach back a further four centuries and cite Protagoras's antithetical judgment that man is the measure of all things. Horace's dictum that there is measure in all things knows it's greater successes in the field of natural science. Even there, the adoption of quantitative modes has not been especially rapid, complete, or devoid of controversy. Nonetheless measurement has come to be perceived as central to the character and critical for the success of the scientific enterprise. Now, since science and society are all of a piece, it shouldn't surprise us that attempts to extend measurement from the natural to the social sphere and even to measure science itself, have a rich complex and very agated history. That history of attempts to measure science has recently been moved to a new level and taken on fresh saliency as a result of actions by the National Science Board. The operating agency charged by the federal government to oversee the actions of the National Science Foundation. The National Science Board has committed itself to what in its own words is the ambitious task of developing a set of indices, a set of measures which would reveal the strengths and weaknesses of US science and technology. In terms of the capacity and performance of the enterprise in contributing to national objectives. Some of you may have seen the volumes that result. Science indicators 1972, science indicators 1974, science indicators 1976, and the soon to be released science indicators 1978. Which are the first steps taken by the National Science Board toward this goal of measuring the health of American science. And if you're not familiar with those volumes, I do recommend them to you. They're worth considerable scrutiny, not least because they are the documents which policy makers are using to make their decisions about what should be supported and why in the fields of science and technology. So not surprisingly, these volumes are already receiving a great deal of analysis and scrutiny by people who want to see where the money is likely to go in days ahead. But science indicators 1972 and its successes may however be viewed not so much as technical reports as policy documents, but also as cultural documents, imperfectly embedded in certain historical traditions and raising interesting intellectual questions. Intellectual questions that perhaps are insoluble, but are nonetheless interesting. Indeed probably humanistic professor's favorite questions are those questions which you know are insoluble before you pick them up. In keeping with this rather different perspective, what I want to do tonight is to sketch for you the historical development of attempts to measure certain aspects of the sciences. I then want to go on to point out that science itself may be viewed in more than one way, and that what you measure depends on what you see and thus indirectly on what you're looking for. And lastly, I want to illustrate the sort of problems that can arise from differences in vision and focus. And I want to do this by examining some of the arguments used in the most famous public debate ever staged about the health of science. My aim in all of this is a fuller appreciation of the complexities of past circumstance and the ambiguities inherent in any attempt to measure a knowledge. Such an appreciation of complexity and ambiguity may help to foster within us an appropriately cautious, sober, and modest commitment to the development of indicators of science. Having told you what I'm going to say, I shall now say it. All right. And I want to begin with the history of measures of science. Attempts to measure science. The history that's long but fragmentary. And I think the most salient starting observation is how isolated from one another were previous workers seeking to quantify changes in aspects of science. Their work was rarely cumulative for it lay in different traditions, it focused on different questions, it proceeded on different assumptions, it answered different needs, and there was little communication between different disciplines and different countries. Even so despite all these problems and negatives, I think it is possible to discern some pattern and coherence in what went on. And to point to five different genres in which work has taken place. The most interesting of those five genres, five ways of attempting to get a measure of scientific activity, but the least developed is that of civilizational history. Logically speaking, the line of development here should begin with and run on, and dwell on Auguste Comte. However, it was the work of Henry Buckle that was to be most heavily cited by subsequent inquirers. Some of you may know his classic account of the scientific life of Scotland, with characteristic English inaccuracy, not British inaccuracy is account of the scientific life of Scotland occurs in a book called, A History of Civilization in England. Scotland merely being a sort of a bit of England for these purposes. But in this classic account, Buckle stated his wish to accomplish for the history of man, something equivalent to what has been affected by other enquirers for the different branches of the natural sciences to do the same for the history of man as has been done for the natural sciences. A statement pointing towards a comparative, classifying, and measuring approach toward intellectual activity. And this desire for a historically based science of man can be seen throughout the latter part of the 19th century and on into the 20th century and works by authors as varied as John Theodore Merz, Edward Eggleston, and Pitirim A. Sorokin, the pioneer first professor of sociology within Harvard University between the wars. Each shared the belief that high intellectual achievement and with it scientific thought could be objectively asade that you could develop some sort of measures of the worth of scientific thought in different places at different times. And of course, my first question to you is whether that's a reasonable thing to try and do, or a fundamentally misconceived task. However, the chief importance of civilizational history lay not in its implicit thrust toward assessing the quantity and caliber of knowledge in various countries and periods, but rather in its indirect stimulus to the sociology of progress, genius studies and statistical bibliography. Three other ways of trying to get a handle on how much thought was going on and what its quality was. The sociology of progress, which is in various ways an averse complimentary field to civilizational history can be seen as the primary stock from which the present burgeoning field of the sociology of science has developed. The path in the sociology of progress again, focuses heavily on Auguste Comte, but here I think goes on rather to Herbert Spencer and to Lester Ward and William Ogburn here in the United States. William Ogburn, who was later to be honored as the first president of the society for the history of technology in 1959, worked with the twin convictions. And I quote, \"One science will grow in social studies, but social studies will become scientific indirect ratio to the use of measurement. That measurement is the key to study of social phenomenon and that any investigation of motives is likely to be superficial without the recognition of cultural factors, which can discerned only through historical investigation.\" So Ogburn thought that you must on one on the same time measure and be historical. And these convictions of Ogburn's provided one ingredient in the creative synthesis achieved by Robert K. Merton in his 1938 study of science technology and society in 17th century, England. A classic PhD thesis. In that thesis, Merton investigated how a particular cultural factor, in his case puritanism affected individual motivation towards science. Of course, he developed the thesis that there was a congruence between the likelihood that one would be puritan and the likelihood that one would turn to scientific activity. He also brought measurement to bear on the provision of economic and technological answers to the question of why certain sciences flourished in particular cultural contexts. Which is another question that one might have obviously ask why this science, not that science. Despite the examples of Ogburn and the young Merton, sociology of science has coalesced as a field in the last quarter century around a concern, not with science in society with cultural dimensions, material needs, and broad historical patterns but rather as with other areas of American sociology. The trend in the sociology of science has been towards the micro analysis of the internal dynamics of small institutions. The family, the gang, the research team. You can obviously view a research team. It's a sort of gang if you analyze it properly. And this trend towards micro analysis fitted well with developments in American science in the quarter century after World War II, when as research budgets grew, publications mushroomed, and PhDs proliferated. Questions of organization, procedure and reward within the burgeoning ranks of American academic science seemed much more interesting than questions about where the money came from and what society wanted. Since the money just came out of a tap, there was no particular need to worry about the nature of that tap at that time. The sociology of science now provides us with many measures of contemporary scientific activity and its internal organization. But with few indices of the intellectual character, cultural orientation, or historical development of scientific knowledge. The same could be said of statistical bibliography, which in recent years has become preoccupied with questions of production, distribution and consumption, rather than those of cognitive content or cultural meaning. Statistical bibliography is an old fashioned name for what is nowadays most often called citation counting. Some of you may have read the squib in science last week about citation counts and the way that with the science citation index, you may now objectively measure the rating of all the professors here in Iowa State. I'm sure they all have very high citation counts. The number of times, some other person, somewhere else in the world refers to your work in their work is a particular now highly mechanized and computerized version of statistical bibliography. Well, these remarks may help indicate the long complex history of certain aspects of the measurement of science. The length and complexity of that history is persuasively brought home if we turn to the two other genres of genius studies and policy oriented lobbying for science. Genius studies. Question. Why do you get genius? Where does genius turn up? Is there anything to be discerned, any regularity to be found in the production of genius, of unusual achievement? Genius studies can be traced back at least to the Swiss botanist Alphonse de Candolle who carried out a systematic numerical investigation of scientific genius in his 1873 volume on the Histoire des Sciences et des Savants depuis deux Siècles. He measured where significant scientists came from. From the mid-17th through the mid-19th century and tried to tabulate it. Why is it that one finds, if you study science in the 16th and 17th centuries, you can't escape Italians. If you study 20th century science, it's very easy to escape Italians. Why? De Candolle sought to establish the significance of environmental factors in nurturing scientific genius and consequently scientific progress. And he was quickly embroiled in controversy, a standard nature, nurture controversy of the sort that goes on today, vis-a-vis sociobiology, et cetera. Controversy with Francis Galton, the founder of biostatistics who wish to emphasize the importance of heredity, that Italian stock had presumably degenerated, according to Galton. Galton's English men of science published a year after de Candolle's work was followed a generation later by Havelock Ellis's study of British Genius while in the United States, James McKeen Cattell who may be more familiar to some of you as the entrepreneurial founder of science magazine. James McKeen Cattell a one-time pupil of Galton was important in establishing the quantitative study of genius here in the United States. Work which came to involve figures as varied as Ellsworth Huntington, Scott Nearing, Frederick Woods, Sorokin once again, and George Sarton, the pioneer historian of science. Within this genre, outstanding men were the focus. I mean, if you're studying genius, you're interested in the exceptional person, very obviously. But you're interested more than that. You're interested in the man rather than the intellectual production as such. The actual intellectual products and the organizational context within which men of genius worked were of only minor interest. So much for genius studies, which fell into disrepute in the years after World War II, for reasons not unconnected with political developments and may now perhaps. I don't know whether a sociobiologists would today feel that genius studies were an obvious point of re-entry or not. But let me leave genius studies and lastly mention the history of measures of science as displayed in the work of lobbyists of people interested in making a case. I presume that being a state university, you are all familiar with the idea of lobbyists and their importance in affairs. I'm referring here to lobbyists for science. To talk about lobbyists for science would really require a paper in itself. Let me just point out how for Britain, a history of measures of science in the work of lobbyists would have to begin at least with Charles Babbage in his 1830 reflections upon the decline of science in England, go through the '1870s reports of the Devonshire, Royal Commissions on Scientific Instruction and up onto the influence of Marxist thought on a remarkable group of young scientists during the depression. Some of you may know Julian Huxley's 1934 book on scientific research and social needs, and J. D. Bernal's pioneering study of the social function of science published in 1939. These together paved the way for those systematic efforts to measure science, which have characterized government action over the last generation. Indeed, in the case of Great Britain, the government appointed Barlow committee, whose 1946 report was to set the tone of British science policy for the next quarter century. That committee was staffed by such left-wing scientists and confreres of Barlow as P.M.S. Blackett, later Lord Blackett, president of the Royal society, J. G. Crowther, science journalist and popular science historian and C. P. Snow, Lord Snow of Two Cultures fame. Paranthetically of course, these people set up the policy of heavy emphasis on science, which has given Britain the best per capita rate in the Western world, in the production of Nobel prize winners and the worst per capita rate in the Western world in economic growth, leading to agonizing reappraisals over these last several years. For the United States, the corresponding history would have to run from Alexander Dallas Bache, the great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin and Henry Roland through George Ellery Hale and Ira Milliken to that gem of the lobbyists art Vannevar Bush's, Science, The Endless Frontier, published in 1945, which was an eloquent plea for more government funding for science. By the early '1950s, there was a great boom in governmental measures of aspects of science in every country of the developed world. The growing number of international reports led to methodological and bibliographical studies of science statistics. From 1966 onwards UNESCO has been publishing an annotated accessions list of studies and reports in the field of science statistics. One way that you can tell that a field of inquiry has really arrived is of course when people start to feel the need to publish bibliographies and accessions lists of material in that field. And that starts happening for science indicators in the mid-1960s, and one can see this phase culminating and a new phase beginning both at once in the publication of the most ambitious study, up to that date, the National Science Board's science indicators, 1972, that the U.S. government came in with far away, the largest, fattest, biggest, mostest study, quantitative study of science ever produced till that date. All right then, for good or ill there is a considerable if fragmentary and confused history of attempts to measure science. So that even though you may not like it, it's probably no good saying, \"Don't do it, stop it, forbid it.\" It's like crime is out there. The question is, how are you going to respond to it? What are you going to make of the activity? And in that connection, I want to talk a little bit about science as a cultural mode. Science as a mode of thought. Because the five genres of civilizational history, sociology of progress, statistical bibliography, genius studies, and policy oriented lobbying suggest how science and the things about it worth measuring may be viewed from a variety of quite different perspectives. In practice, powerful traditions within the scientific community itself, foster a view of science, which sees it primarily as a matter of results, whether those results be held to reside in theories, hypothesis, laws, or established facts. Perhaps somebody will wish to take me up on this in question and answer, but let me say for purposes of starting discussion that I think if you ask most science professors, what is science that their first thoughts will go to the results. The theories, laws, facts, et cetera. In this view, science possesses very great internal autonomy. Interaction with the largest society is primarily in terms of A, decisions whether or on what scale to fund the necessarily esoteric specialized practitioners of research. And B, of intellectual and societal impacts of the results of that research. That science is somehow autonomous. You switch it on, outcome the results you then may or may not do something with those results. And a view of science of this kind underlies much of the analysis in the science indicators series and in the whole policy oriented genre, which it exemplifies. The emphasis is on input output models, focused on the consumption of financial resources and the production of people, papers and patterns. Normally with the argument implicit, somewhere in the text, that if you gave us more money, we would produce more people, papers and patents. And it's a scandal of greater or lesser degree that you don't give us more money. There's nothing necessarily pernicious in that. This is intrinsic to the lobbying business. The same can be said of all lobbyists on behalf of a particular activity. What I want to point out though, is that a civilizational history and early work in the sociology of progress tradition would suggest it may be analytically more fruitful to view science as a mode of culture and hence of cognition, education, socialization, and control. The work of many anthropologists reminds us the different social systems, different ways of organizing society, throw up characteristically different styles of Characteristic modes of belief about nature, carry with them appropriate patterns of education and socialization. The reason that we believe what we do about nature, speaking for myself is not because I have worked through the theories of Einstein for myself, performed the experiments of Galileo for myself. That one's difficult 'cause then there still seems to be some ambiguity about whether Galileo did perform experiments. Hence I'm not sure whether I can perform Galileo's experiments. But we believe these things because of patterns of education and socialization. These patterns serve to maintain and reinforce the basic culture and its social structures. Now science, in the sense that we use the term belief in natural law, empirical investigation, consensible results, progressive understanding is itself a belief system characteristic of a social order, which can be and has been described. In Earnest brilliant aphorism, science essentially is the form of cognition of industrial society. Science essentially is the form of cognition of industrial society. The work of the anthropologist Mary Douglas, suggests to us the possibility of constructing a typology, which systematically relates social structures to varieties of cosmology, varieties of systems of belief about the natural world. Her work also suggests ways of understanding how cosmology changes as social structure changes. For example... And this is a conjectural example to set someone I hope saying it isn't so. For example, it may be that the preferred modes of science in an industrial society will be found to be physics and chemistry. In a more agrarian pre-industrial society you may find much greater social, cultural, and intellectual emphasis on geology, natural history, and meteorology. While in a post industrial service economy, it may be that the social and biological and medical sciences will be the preferred modes of cognition. The argued for, or perceived utility of each of these modes is part of the cultural constellation in question. I shan't be disconcerted if you say, \"Well, but of course in the 18th century you pay more attention to natural history it's more useful. And of course in 1900, you pay more attention to physics and chemistry. And of course in 2050, you pay more attention to sociology and biology. That's all right. The belief in the utility of these things is part of the cultural constellation itself. The question of whether or not they objectively possess utility is something else. Again, a whole separate question that would raise further complications, but the perceived utility, the fact that people believe in them, is part of the cultural constellation in question. Again, there are social systems in which cosmology and culture isn't scientific at all, of course, as They have quite other perceived utilities for things. Equally, there are sectors of our own society for which scientific modes of cognition either have no meaning or only negative implications, different cosmologists at work. Three obvious examples would be the ghetto, the counter-culture, literary intellectuals. Those are sectors of society where scientific cosmologists have no meaning or only negative implications. Thus I think that if we wish to develop measures of the health of science, we shall have to attend at least in part to the sociology of knowledge and ask ourselves what changes are taking place now in our own social system, not in our science, but in our social system, in our social life. Which of these changes carry implications for science as a mode of culture? To answer questions of this kind much greater stress must be placed on understanding public attitudes to science on seeing how images of science in different social and professional groups relate to other aspects of their cultural experience and on the manner of socialization in science via formal education and informal popularization. I think it's an interesting question for anyone under 30 in the room to say, \"A, do I believe in science? And B if so, why? What is it that makes me believe in all of this?\" Scientific activity, then I want to argue, maybe understood as a cultural mode rather than as an autonomous enterprise. Something that's true just out there in nature, that we've only to sort of feed in people and money, turn the tap and out will come science because the world dictates that that should be so. By the same token, if science is a cultural mode, the very act of policy planning or lobbying for science may be viewed with respect to its implications for the changing place of science in the wider scheme of affairs, rather than simply as an intellectual case to be admitted or refuted. Controversy over scientific resources and that proper deployment appears after all to be about as old as science itself. It was seven years after the founding of the Royal Society of London, that questions about how best to utilize talent led to Thomas Sprat undertaking his mammoth defense of scientific activity in his history of the Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge. And Sprat's history and the controversy to which it led signaled I think the emergence of new cultural forms. In that case, the very social organization of science itself as a form of intellectual endeavor. And since that time, each shift in the meaning of science has been marked by a flurry of discussion of this kind. And I think it speaks much to the whole ethos of science to its future oriented, progressive as stems that these discussions which have usually heralded significant growth in the size, scope, and power of the scientific enterprise have usually been cast in the lamenting language of decline that people have talked about how everything is falling apart. When you find scientists talking about how everything is falling apart, it usually indicates that things are going ahead even more rapidly than usual. Examples spring to mind on all sides. Henry Roland, deploring the terrible state of American physics just as it was inexorably moving towards its first real maturity. French scientists of the late 19th century castigating their countrymen for their parsimoniousness, even as French chemistry wax stronger and stronger. American science watches, solemnly discussing what was known as American indifference to basic research in the years immediately after World War II, just as the country embarked on an unprecedented funding of pure science. And most notoriously of all Charles Babbage and a cohort of cooperators lambasting the decline of science in England at a time when English science was newly launched on a wave of intellectual and organizational creativity. I think those four examples are enough to give us pause because it may be that they suggest the presence of patterned regularities in the interplay between intellectual needs, social forms, and cultural constraints on innovation and reform. The point to the question of how do you make your case for more support. And one way of making a case for more support is quite simply to say very loudly everything is terrible. Things are in terrible state. And indeed it's at the moment that you have other reasons for beginning to suppose that you might get that support. That's one time that you may feel impelled to make statements of that kind. If this is so and it suggests something, it suggests perhaps that the very decision to create science indicators may indicate itself that significant changes are occurring in the cultural locations of American science. Be that as it may, what I want to do in my last section is to take you to a particular controversy and to just point out some of the difficulties and developing any consensus about measuring the health of science. I want to go to Charles Babbage and his reflections on the decline of science in England published in 1830. The one thing that Babbage and everyone else in that debate did agree upon, it was that the country of Sir Isaac Newton, could claim no continuing tradition of mathematical astronomy, or theoretical physics that could challenge the French school of To some people this one fact about one field was sufficient evidence of a decline in English science and to others it became so as the argument developed. The argument developed in a context of a cut back of the board off longitude, which upset the men of science in London. The sudden deaths... Things that a historian might note, sudden deaths of three leading men of science of the period, who'd all been eponomised in science since that time. Humphrey Davy of the Davy lamp, Thomas Young of Young's Modulus, and William Hyde Wollaston of Wallaston's who all died within six months of one another, hence giving you some sense of decline. But it took a particular innovative genius to turn particular events of this kind into a sustained debate, a reformist lobby and the first attempt to measure the health of science. Babbage, Charles Babbage, the absentee professor of mathematics at Cambridge, the struggling if state financed inventor of the difference engine, a mechanical computer, the well-connected confidant of men of science and men of affairs, and the impatient visionary of a new and better world. Perfectly summed up all his personal grievances and catalyzed a public debate in his 1830 reflections on the decline of science in England. In fact, he produced a European wide debate about was English science declining, or was it not. And this debate gives us a marvelously documented example of a social context in which the health of science became an issue. As of course it's become an issue again in America in the '1970s. The National Science Board continues to feel that there are disturbing indicators about the health of American science today. The arguments of the various protagonist in this debate reveal a great deal about the implicit and explicit indicators to which different groups are likely to appeal in such circumstances. And I just want to focus on Babbage himself and on his main protagonists Gerald Maul, an Anglophile Dutch professor who took it upon himself to defend English science, and to look at the indicators to which they appealed, and also to look at them with the benefit of a little historical hindsight. Babbage felt that the decline of English science was self-evident and it's an opinion shared by many. \"Here, whole branches of continental discovery are unstudied and indeed unknown, even by name. It's vain to conceal the melancholic truth, we are fast dropping behind. In mathematics we have long since drawn the rain and given over a hopeless race. In chemistry, the case is not much better. There are indeed few sciences, which would not furnish matter for similar remark.\" That's Babbage, but that's Babbage quoting John Herschel, the leading astronomer of his day. And they're in agreement that English science is in decline that failure to dominate the research front is the essence of decline, and that failure to be cited in or to cite appropriate foreign literature is the implicit indicator of decline. And Babbage went on to spell out the causes of decline. The system of education pursued in Britain, lack of incentives to study sciences. Babbage's notion of an incentive to study a particular science was to arrange a compulsory examination in that science as part of the educational process, that from time to time appeals to science faculty everywhere under the name of a balanced liberal education and certain things of that sort. \"Inadequate socialization into science. Inadequate rewards for science,\" said Babbage. \"Inadequate rewards in prestige, in organization, and in money. The lack of science as a profession, the pursuit of science does not in England constitute a distinct profession as it does in other countries. It is therefore on that ground alone deprived of many advantages. In particular lacked clear career paths, well-rewarded positions, and the public respect that followed regulation from within by self-selecting professionals.\" And here Babbage appealed quite directly to statistical indicators. He tabulated the number of foreign scientists who held public office. That is who held political office and felt that high numbers were good, the more scientists in public office the healthier the science is. He calculated the fraction of national populations admitted to national scientific societies. In this case, he decided high fractions were bad to have too many people in your national scientific society indicated lacks and unprofessional standards. He calculated the fraction of academy members holding honorific decorations, being knighted, being given medals of honor and so on and so forth. And here he could cite people like and show how high honor was given to science in France, through public decoration of these people, and the monetary income of men of science here. Not surprisingly high-income was good for it showed that the laborer is worthy of his hire. Well for Babbage each and every one of these measures revealed the unsatisfactory situation of English compared with continental science. Obviously the idea of using the United States for comparison was so ludicrous that it never arose within this discussion at this time. These implicit indicators helped explain the gradual decline of the highest departments of mathematical and physical science since the days of Newton. Well, in stark contrast to Babbage, Gerald Maul wouldn't admit that the was any decline. He wrote a book on the alleged decline of science in England. He said the indicators Babbage used were either mistakes or misleading. British work was eagerly read on the continent. The failure of the English to cite to make reference to rather than simply to be informed about the work of foreigners revealed not the incompetence of English science, but the linguistic chauvinism of Englishmen. Indifference to science among the aristocracy was true in all countries. Honorific decorations and high monetary incomes to men of science merely indicated... Well, what do they indicate? Well to Maul, they indicate corruption, flattery, and diversion of talent from scientific to political Ms. But in England people paid to join the Royal Society of London rather than joined the society in order to get paid as they did with the French Academy, where when you became a member you had a paid position, indicated to Maul the health of British science and so on and so forth. Thus one observer viewed as the decline, the other saw simply as indicators of a healthy state of affairs. But what's more interesting than their actual disagreement on the meaning of the available indicators are some indicators that they neglected. Some of these were easily available, others emerge only with hindsight. I think it would be unreasonable to expect Babbage and Maul to realize that 1830 was the year in which Charles Lyell, was about to publish his Principles of Geology, Charles Darwin was just getting ready for the Voyage of the Beagle, and Michael Faraday stood on the brink of discovering electromagnetic induction. It will be decades before the immensity of the achievement of each of these three men became apparent. Yet each was embarked on his particular path in 1830, a year in which serious man could passionately debate the decline of English science. This should I think, give pause to everyone concerned to measure current science. Present awareness may be wider, present information systems may be better, yet the enterprise to be measured is incomparably more complex than that with which Maul and Babbage dealt. And there's little to suggest that available tools for appraising its intellectual vitality are significantly better. The work of Darwin, Faraday, and Lyell was hidden in 1830, not so many other important indicators. If you actually look at the argument, Babbage and his contemporaries sought to appraise what was familiar to them. Government, science, university research, the world of the Royal Society and of the high elite. With the benefit of historical hindsight it's possible for us to appreciate the extent to which the cultural locus of science was shifting at this time, without their knowledge. The most salient indicators of the health of English science actually lay in the rate of formation of metropolitan discipline societies, of provincial literary and philosophical associations, of natural history clubs, of statistical and agricultural societies, and of mechanics institutes with their classes for chemistry and astronomy. Also important, but equally neglected by the debaters was the tremendous growth in textbook and encyclopedia publishing, the emergence of a popular journal literature of science, and the dramatic expansion of teaching and learning opportunities through the activities of itinerant lecturers, mathematical practitioners, instrument makers, and medical entrepreneurs. All this activity well indicates the progressivist orientations, which helped to make science the mode of cognition of industrial society, and thus to guarantee not decline, but unprecedented growth in due course on that high elite level, which so much concerned Babbage and Maul. Reflection on Babbage's failures shared equally by his most passionate supporters and his most determined opponents highlights both the difficulties in obtaining consensus indicators, indicators on which all parties can agree, and the dangers inherent in a too narrow, a historic definition of measures appropriate for a saying the health of science. Let me conclude, and in concluding say that there can be, I think no single conclusion. The aim of my lecture to you has been to explore the complexities which necessarily the set any attempt to measure the health of science. And it may be that at this juncture you want to throw up your hands and say, \"Well, let's not bother about doing it.\" And I would only remind you that whatever you think people out there are doing it and are making major policy and funding decisions on the basis of the measures that they are even now constructing. Thank you.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/43663/file/116755#t=0.0,3502.2"}]}]}]}