{"@context":"http://iiif.io/api/presentation/3/context.json","id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/iiif/k93125r127/manifest","type":"Manifest","label":{"en":["Piel, Gerard, Genetic Engineering"]},"logo":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/organizations/logo_images/000/000/004/original/ISULogo.png?1601681107","metadata":[{"label":{"en":["Preferred Citation"]},"value":{"en":["Genetic Engineering. Iowa State University Lecture Series (RS 8/6/53). Special Collections and University Archives, Iowa State University Library, Ames, Iowa."]}},{"label":{"en":["Publisher"]},"value":{"en":["Iowa State University. Special Collections and University Archives"]}},{"label":{"en":["Rights Statement"]},"value":{"en":["There are no restrictions on access. (access)","This item is protected by copyright and/or related rights. You are free to use this item in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. 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tonight.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=6.52,8.55"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/3","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Thank you for coming out on a cold night","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=8.55,10.57"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/4","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to hear distinguished 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Franklin,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=90.25,92.723"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/25","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"that's done in a steel engraving,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=93.63,95.493"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/26","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"at the time, the very happy time in his life","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=97.1,100.49"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/27","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"when he was the ambassador of the Continental Congress,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=100.49,105.49"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/28","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to Paris during the revolution.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=107.04,108.903"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/29","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"And was very much a local hero in Paris.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=110.18,115.18"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/30","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"And this steel engraving has under it,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=118.08,121.091"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/31","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"a wonderful Latin, (in foreign language).","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=121.091,122.6"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/32","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Which reads in my high school Latin,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=124.44,129.44"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/33","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\"Eripuit caelo fulmen sceptrumque tyrannis\".","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=129.737,134.737"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/34","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Which translated 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time","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=162.3,165.94"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/41","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"between the natural and the social sciences.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=165.94,169.203"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/42","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"He regarded all of knowledge as the province of 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dark","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=239.62,242.91"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/59","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and frightened recesses of the human spirit","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=242.91,245.16"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/60","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"from which this proposition 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fear.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=252.45,255.733"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/63","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"But in the absence of Benjamin Franklin,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=258.77,261.203"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/64","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"I'm gonna have to take us the long way 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did","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3672.85,3675.61"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/994","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"the participation of citizens who take them whom,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3675.61,3678.66"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/995","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"themselves take the trouble","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3678.66,3680.32"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/996","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to make themselves responsibly informed.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3680.32,3682.783"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/997","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"In this controversy over where we go from here","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3686.81,3691.15"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/998","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"with work on deeper understanding of the genetic apparatus","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3691.15,3696.15"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/999","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and its application to the solution of urgent","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3697.29,3700.18"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1000","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"human material problems.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3700.18,3701.913"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1001","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"I think that the community of geneticists has given us","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3704.47,3709.47"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1002","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"a marvelous working,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3710.17,3711.23"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1003","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"working example of the process of self-government.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3711.23,3716.23"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1004","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"An example that I would hope we will see","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3716.69,3719.29"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1005","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"repeated in the management of our larger society","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3720.44,3725.44"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1006","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"in the years to come.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3725.63,3726.773"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1007","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"I thank you.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3728.56,3730.264"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1008","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"(clears throat)\n(audience claps)","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3730.264,3735.264"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1009","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"You have all been good enough","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3741.47,3742.32"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1010","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to give me the floor for an hour,","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3742.32,3744.47"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1011","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"if there are dead cats, vegetables","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3744.47,3747.73"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1012","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and an uncertain state of decay","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3747.73,3749.85"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1013","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"that you wanna fire down here","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3749.85,3752.07"},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1014","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"or questions, I'm here.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=3752.07,3755.083"}]},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["English [Transcript]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29685/annotation/1015","type":"Annotation","motivation":"subtitling","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/file_transcripts/associated_files/000/029/685/original/AV167990_Genetic_Enginering_a.vtt?1624892574","format":"text/vtt","language":"en"},"target":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/file_transcripts/associated_files/000/029/685/original/AV167990_Genetic_Enginering_a.vtt?1624892574"}]},{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29686","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["AV167990_Genetic_Enginering_a.txt [Transcript]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397/transcript/29686/annotation/1016","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"- City committee on lectures, I'd like to welcome you all tonight. Thank you for coming out on a cold night to hear distinguished speaker. Gerard Piel is the editor and publisher or an editor and publisher of Scientific American magazine, which we're all familiar, he's been in that capacity since 1948. He's the author of two books and recipient of several awards. He's a fellow member of several scientific and honorary societies, including The Council on Foreign Relations. Probably most notably, he serves as a trustee on the boards of several universities, including Radcliffe, Phillips Academy, Kaiser Foundation, New York University. Is a trustee of the American Natural History Museum and also serves on the Board of Overseers of Harvard College. Mr. Piel will speak to us tonight on the topic, Genetic Engineering; Life in our hands. Mr Piel.\r\n\r\n- There was a portrait of Benjamin Franklin, that's done in a steel engraving, at the time, the very happy time in his life when he was the ambassador of the Continental Congress, to Paris during the revolution. And was very much a local hero in Paris. And this steel engraving has under it, a wonderful Latin, . Which reads in my high school Latin, \"Eripuit caelo fulmen sceptrumque tyrannis\". Which translated says, \"He Snatched Lightning from the Sky and the Scepter from the hand of the Tyrant.\" Benjamin Franklin was a natural philosopher. He was, a natural philosopher was what in the 18th century, they called a scientist. He didn't draw the timid distinction we draw on our time between the natural and the social sciences. He regarded all of knowledge as the province of reason. He founded long before the revolution, the American Philosophical Society, in 1743, \"For Promoting Useful Knowledge,\" in the words he gave, he gave its motto. Franklin knew that promoting that kind of knowledge was a subversive activity. Because it is the kind of knowledge that sets men free. I mention Franklin because the issue that's before us tonight, this question, whether it is necessary or somehow desirable or good to place limits on free inquiry, on scientific inquiry, on the promotion of useful knowledge is one that Franklin would have been able to dismiss with one of his proverbs. A proverb that would expose the dark and frightened recesses of the human spirit from which this proposition comes and what even set that spirit laughing at its timidity and fear. But in the absence of Benjamin Franklin, I'm gonna have to take us the long way around to what I think would be, I'm sure it would be his conclusion, his response to the proposition that we somehow have to bring this labor and this work to a halt. The notion that limits should be set on scientific inquiry arise in this case, from the anxiety and fear that's been stirred by reports in the press on a new capacity acquired by biologists. It is bruited under the heading of recombinant DNA, I'm not quite sure how to parse and translate that. A better term for it could be transgenosis. What is implied and meant by all this is that it is now possible for a scientist to lift pieces of the genetic apparatus out of the cells of one species of living creature and move them, these bits of genetic apparatus, still kicking, into the cells of another. Now, nature has set up boundaries across which that kind of material and the extraordinary, extraordinary information it bears does not often move naturally. And this is an extraordinary and a protean power now in the hands of man. What excites public discussion, principally, as one reads the press, is the possibility, the thought that this kind of work might let loose in the world some irremediable virus, some pathogenic organism against which we would have no either natural defenses or defenses created by science and medicine. Or that someone out of malevolence and mischief might play games like that. I think though that the anxiety that surrounds this question and this development, has deeper roots in the moral questions that are implicit in this work. This kind of work brings a new sort of dilemma into modern life. Quite unlike the dilemma, so-called, attached to the atomic weapons. It might not be surprising that our imperfect political organizations are caught in the insane choice between life and death. But that's something that comes out of those institutions, not out of the nature of atomic energy. The dilemmas that arise out of this work in biology are inherent in the work. To try to get our arms around the dilemma, if that's a good strategy in dealing with the dilemma, let us try to consider this work at closer range. By now in such a company I'm sure I do not have to explain what DNA is. That in just a little under a century from the time that Gregor Mendel proposed that genetic traits moved as units. Recognized that they did from his experiments, and not as a blend or a mixture, but moved as units and proposed the existence of a quite theoretical notion of the gene, that is that unit by which heredity passes. Within a century, that unit of heredity had got a biochemical definition. And the famous paper of Watson and Crick in the magazine the British scientific publication, Nature, in 1953. And I think you all know that the marvelous thing about this part of the natural apparatus is that it's intelligible. But it's not as wonderfully and scrambled, scrambledly complicated as nature usually is. That all of the information that makes makes us in our singularity is conveyed by the sequence in which four different kinds of chemical units which we call bases are ordered along in endless chains in which those bases turn up in various orders. And that the information is encoded in units of three of those four bases. And when you have four different units that can be sorted in combinations of three, the number of possible combinations is four to the third power. Which gives you 64 possible combinations of three of the four bases. That gives you an alphabet in effect of 64 letters. Now, all that alphabet has to do is encode 20 different amino acids. And if there's one codon one of those combinations of three for each amino acid you can see that you've got quite a surplus of codons. That what you have is a splendidly redundant code so that the amino acids of which there are only 20 odd that occur most frequently will have more combinations to encode them. And then there are codes, there are codons leftover for spaces in a typewriter or a, or a MOS code or there are, and there are codons leftover to to accept signals that activate the genetic apparatus or turn it off. So in this simple ordering of the four bases along these endless chains, it is possible to write now a dictionary of the proteins that make up our bodies. That extraordinary plastic that is made up of only 20 different amino acids, in each of these fit along a backbone. And the different, the different amino acids, are established as different from one another by the little side groups that are attached to otherwise identical backbone units that link together to make the proteins. And all of the infinity of variety of nature comes out of the different ordering of 20 amino acids. And the number of possibilities there goes far beyond four to the three, because here we're talking about endless possible combinations and orders of amino acids. But nonetheless, here was a marvelous, sense-making flash of insight into the internal ordering and structuring of life processes. And it is now well-established that all living things owe their origin and their, and their growth and development to the information encoded in the, in the DNA or a related molecule, the RNA that in which they are genetic in the genetic information necessary to make them is encoded. This includes the E. coli, the little tiny bacillus that inhabits our gut and does wonderful service for our existence because the E. coli in many different mutation forms produces vital enzymes and conducts important parts of the elementary processes in our bodies. The same DNA encodes information that makes, that makes an algae in a pond or makes a sequoia on the California Coast. Makes a whale in the ocean. Each one, each set of DNA in each living creature gives it its identity as a member of its species, and also its identity, as as an individual member of that species. Now, out of this background of knowledge, it is become possible, as I said to transplant strings of DNA across the boundary between species. Well, I did bring you a picture here of a, of a. There's one, there's one bacterial virus, it's the phage X174, which is the first living creature, if we can call that phage, a virus, a living creature and that's a more of a theological or metaphysical question whether it's alive or dead. But it's now been completely decoded. It has in the chain of DNA, which is illustrated here in a quite abstract pattern with the strings of, of bases running continuously back and forth across the page, making a kind of maze. There are 5,375 nucleotides. And the precise order in which they're arranged along that backbone has been established. Those 5,375 nucleotides specifying the synthesis of nine different proteins. Those nine different and one of the nine is encoded in the darker colored section, of the diagram of the DNA chain. Those nine different proteins make up the overcoat that wraps this apparatus. And that protein overcoat is what makes that particular bacterial virus specifically infective to particular kinds of bacteria. Once the, the phage makes a penetration of the bacterial cell as the result of its specific infectivity, the stickiness of the proteins that attach it to the skin of the bacterium, then the DNA gets inside and takes over the, the apparatus the genetic apparatus of the bacterium, and turns out apparatus to manufacturing more viral DNA and more of the nine proteins of which the virus has made. And after this operation has gone on for a half hour or so the bacterium disappears and lo and behold, you've got 40 or 50 new little virus particles made of, of the substance of that black bacterium taken over by the virus. So there we have a foreign, a piece of foreign genetic apparatus penetrating a cell taking over the mission, the biosynthetic machinery of that cell and making more of itself. Now it's something analogous to that, that man has succeeded in doing. And that is taking bits of the DNA apparatus from one cell and implanting it in another. And then succeeding in getting, or hoping to succeed in getting one of the three results. For example, we want to understand the biosynthetic and genetic apparatus by which the hemoglobin of our bodies of our bloodstreams is generated. Someone takes the, the blood forming tissue cells and submits to treatment by the enzymes all well now unknown and understood to students in this field, that will simply disassemble the entire genetic apparatus of those blood forming cells. Those bits and pieces of the genetic apparatus are then incorporated in analogs of this bacterial virus, I just described to you, little things called plasmids are incorporated in the cell of a bacterium and the E. coli as the handing one to do this with. Then you can get the E. coli reproducing in bacterial culture by one means or another, you can separate the different E. coli bacteria that you've now infected with human DNA. And you can find one, that's got one particular hook of the human DNA like that one. And get that E. coli reproducing in quantity, now you'll have a huge quantity of that part of the human genetic apparatus. And you're able with that larger quantity of it to conduct studies by which you can get the base sequence of that part of the human genetic apparatus. And incidentally going from here, where we can get the genetic apparatus of one entire living creature on one page it'll take a million of these pages to produce, to reproduce and make a picture of a print out the information it takes to make a human being. So you can see toward the understanding of our own genetic apparatus, the desirability of being able to reproduce in quantity, the bits and pieces of it, we hope to be able to study and to decode. Second is to get a piece of, let's say of the human genetic apparatus into one of those cells and get it not only being reproduced as the cell reproduce, reproduces, but to get that gene doing its business. And it has been already done. That for genetic apparatus for the manufacturer of of insulin has been installed in an E. coli and has been reproduced. There is next to the possibility reproduced as the E. coli reproduces. There is next to the possibility that we can get those E. coli to manufacture in human insulin. And if we can, it will bring to the sufferers from diabetes a much better form of insulin than that which is can be made synthetically or extracted from, from pigs and other agricultural animals. There opens up here a whole new branch of medicine, orthomolecular medicine, as Linus Pauling has described it, meaning curing human ills by installing the right molecules in the body not bringing in foreign molecules. There's finally the prospect, that useful genes can be transplanted from one species to another to enhance the performance of the second. For example, we spend now in our country, more energy in the raising of nature field crops, such as wheat then the end pouring energy of the sun installs in those plants and in their products. That energy is expended largely in delivering the fertilizer to the field. If it were possible to get wheat, to establish the same symbiotic relationship with the nitrogen fixing bacteria that distinguishes the legume family, the peas and the beans and the soybean a great deal of that squandering of fossil energy could be saved. There's the further prospect that the nitrogen fixing apparatus might be transplanted from the bacterium to the wheat germ itself. So that the wheat plant becomes capable of fixing its own nitrogen. And if we could go on with a little thing up of our imaginations here, we could also conceivably move into the wheat plant, the C4 trait which distinguishes the roadside weeds that use sunlight at four times, the efficiency that wheat and other agricultural crop plants do. Now, we've gotten a weed plant with extra photosynthetic capacity to handle the energy requirements of its nitrogen fixing and then some. With further feats of engineering along this line, agricultural scientists might begin to design the ultimate ideal weed plant. One that would be freed from its dependence on the photo period that limits the latitudes within which it grows. But would produce its crop in 60 days of growing time so that it could be grown up at the 60th degree latitude on the Canadian Prairies. One that would grow with an acre foot of water and produce 10 tons of a edible crop per acre. This is the kind of, of a future that beckons. I think though, that the greatest thing we have to learn from this work we've already learned and we're all already the beneficiaries of that is that we all our existence to the same kind of genetic apparatus and its functioning as all other living things do. There is no more vivid and poetic proof that we ourselves are children of this earth and cousins to every living thing on it. Now, there is some question about the hazards that attend this work and I've mentioned them. But as I say, I think that concerned about the hazards covers a deeper anxiety about the moral right and wrong of this work. The question, whether it is proper for men to take in his hands such a power over the future evolution of fellow creatures on earth. And then the question is who is to decide whether this kind of work is right or wrong and ought to be done. And there's a sentiment widely abroad in our society but this is a question too important to be left to scientists. And none of this anxiety comes to call for a moratorium on this work and more extravagant calls for the creation of science control boards and other restraints on free inquiry. Let me respond by considering first the dangers of the work. Science can offer us no certain answers to any question we have to ask. That's the nature of scientific understanding the nature of the method by which we acquire such knowledge. It's the essence of living by the rational process and not living in the reassurance of received absolutes from elsewhere. Now, in consequence, people who work in this field can't tell you that there is no danger from it. The people who work in this field have taken the other approach. They've exaggerated the dangers out of their sense of responsibility to society and have designed the safeguards they propose to install in laboratories where this work goes on against the worst case. It's like the Pentagon's annual approach to the Congress for financial support. They come in with the worst case story about what the Russians are up to and how far they are ahead of it. The security procedures that can be set up to protect society and the workers in the laboratory from the hazards of this work come in three kinds, the way most such security procedures do. There's chemical containment, there are antibiotics, there are plain old Lysol and other heavy chemicals to kill germs. There are secondly physical protections. The simplest physical protection is to keep the laboratory under negative pressure with respect to the world outside it. Except a venting all the air from the lab through a sterilizing chamber. So that when someone goes down the hall past the door, and then the door swings open, the air will blow in and not out of the laboratory and whatever is in it, especially bugs that might be floating in aerosols stay in the lab and don't float out of the laboratory. Physical containments like that. And finally, those biological containment. That is to say the E. coli which is the most ubiquitous laboratory animal in this field of work can be bred to and has been universally in laboratories is used in a laboratory strain which out of generations of culturing in the lab has lost its power to live in the human gut and cannot survive outside of laboratory culture. And so precautions of this kind can, can contain I'm confident and every responsible person who has reviewed the evidence is confident that the hazards that arise in this work are no worse than the hazards that arise in any laboratory dealing with, with infectious disease. Laboratories like the, the Epidemic and Infectious Disease calls Control Center in Atlanta which for years has operated with this kind of precaution. The important question and the real underlying one is I think the moral dilemma Whether we are fit to take life in our hands Whether it is of man to seize life to save, seize control of this primary force of nature. What are the imperfect societies we've created on earth are capable of creating circumstances under which this kind of control can be safely exercised. Whether it is possible that dreadful powers are now being created, that might come into the hands of worse tyrants than we've known before in history. I'd like to put this issue into context. And then putting it into context, I've got to take us back to the beginning. In the beginning for the purposes of this discussion will be the beginning of the solar system. That's four and a half billion years before the present. That may seem long enough ago but I could go back further to perhaps the life of the several stars that must, must've been the parents of our solar system, because the heavier elements do abound in the terrestrial planets in any case and are found in tiny quantities in the sun itself. And those heavy elements can only have been cooked in very big and massive stars that have gone way past the the hydrogen to helium thermonuclear reaction and onto the carbon to iron thermonuclear reactions and on beyond, and finally producing the uranium that's in the earth and the supernova explosion from which our sun then millions of years later condensed. With the birth of our sun, the planets within the first couple of tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of years also formed. And so we can figure that our earth began about four and a half billion years ago. The first part of its history was truly chaos, in the classical Greek sense of the term. Because this little gravitational mess with sweeping up the debris of unconsolidated rebel that formed at the same time that the earth and the other planets did and the earth must've at that time, been very much and cratered planet just as we know now Mercury, Venus and Mars are and remain so today. And it had a very different atmosphere. It must have at that time, the rocks of the earth the most ancient rocks on the earth show that it did but it was an atmosphere without oxygen. And from other evidence, we know that it must've been an accident and atmosphere made up of ammonia and methane and similar noxious gases that we couldn't possibly live in today. But sometime before the year 3 billion, 500 million years before our present, life got started on this earth. And we know this because the most ancient fossils known to man are 3 billion, 600 million years old. And these are fossils of already intact and functioning living cells capable of photosynthesis. So life formed on the earth under these unfavorable circumstances within the first billion years of its history and probably in a three or 400 million year period between the cooling down of the originally formed planet and the formation of the rocks in which these living cells appear. Once they get in and out of experiments that can be done in the laboratory today, that the earth without the protection of its ozone layer that shelters us now from the high energy actinic rays of the sun, that those high energy not high energy radiation pouring in on an atmosphere of methane and ammonia could synthesize and that can be done today in a, in a quartz tube, filled with methane and ammonia and exposed to ultraviolet light and x-rays. That amino acids and the base units of the genetic apparatus will form spontaneously under those circumstances. And so the first seas of the world were a kind of thin Blue yawn, you might say, made up of of the first beginning fragments of life. And what this knowledge tells us is that life must not only be universal and throughout the universe because it is highly likely that there are many many stars like the sun surrounded by solar systems. And out of that, very many, there must be quite a few with planets as favorably situated as the earth is with respect to its sun, to produce the conditions for life. The life has not only universal therefore but an inevitable outcome of the processes of nature in which solar systems form. Now, the first creatures we see in the rocks are cells that have already learned the trick of photosynthesis. And it's clear also from what is understood about biochemical processes that the cells that came before but didn't have this capacity, capacity of capturing energy from the sun must have captured their by processes of fermentation, such as go on on the earth today. Fermentation in the absence of oxygen, an aerobic fermentation. This is still a process on which the lives of many species of bacteria depend many contemporary living species. And they may be regarded as in a sense, living fossils held over from the very beginning of life on earth. At least they give us examples of the kind of chemistry that went on then. So already the cells had developed the biochemical tricks of fermentation of an aerobic photosynthesis and now in consequence of their learning they capture sunlight to enhance that chemical capacity that we're beginning to release oxygen into the atmosphere of the earth. And in this period when these first living creatures appear life has already becoming evident upon earth as a geological force. It is changing the nature of the atmosphere of the earth. Which now becomes an atmosphere pretty much as it is today about 20% oxygen of nitrogen and soups of, of other gases. So pretty soon after these creatures arrive, living the living cells are going to develop capacity for aerobic photosynthesis, that is such as it's carried on by our plants today on earth. And pretty soon after that, then living cells must've begun to learn and develop the process of respiration. That is to say, to use oxygen for firing and fueling their life processes. Oxygen which would have been poison, and is poison today to the anaerobic bacteria that persist in, on the earth. Now I'm describing this phase of evolution in detail. Because this phase of evolution occupied 3 billion years in which the only inhabitants of this earth with single cells that were learning all of the tricks of biochemistry that we are beginning to comprehend today. These cells do not have in their interior organization the same kind of structuring as the cells our bodies are made of. The like the bacteria they're called prokaryotes. That is a little Greek word, that means they don't have organized and separated nuclei in their bodies. In their, in their, in the little sac that makes the cell. That their genetic apparatus is a little string that floats free in the protoplasm of the cell. Well, and is it the end of the 3 billion years of this kind of evolution that the prokaryotic cells now bring froth on earth for the first time the eukaryotic cells of which we are made. The eukaryotic cell is a very structured and organized creature. It has a nucleus in a sac. It has a great deal more information in its nucleus, than, than it's contained in the bacterial apparatus of, of, of a bacteria phage. For example, it takes about 2000 pages like this to specify a single cell bacterium. Now for the much more complex information that's in the cells that make our bodies it was necessary now to segregate the DNA behind its own membrane. And in the eukaryotic cell we find also the little engine that conducts respiration, the mitochondrion, which also has its own DNA in it to manufacture part of its protective membrane. In the plant cell, there is the chloroplast that conducts the photosynthesis that also carries its own little bits of DNA to make certain parts of its apparatus. And there were other little organelles in these cells that make them quite sophisticated and remarkable invention of nature. And from the time that cell appeared on earth that eukaryote is only 500 million years ago. And with the arrival of that cell suddenly the whole process of evolution speeded up. And within the 500 million years has come the age of the reptiles. These cells learn in no time at all to grow hair, to grow fins and feathers, to grow teeth and, and toenails and to make, to make flying machines to make swimming machines, to make great land and also moving machines like the dinosaurs, and suddenly to create all the variety of life on earth. And I haven't even mentioned all the enormous and fabulous variety of plant life. In only 500 million years. And then came the next great event in evolution, which began about three and a half million years ago. Which was the arrival on earth of purpose, of value, of culture. And that made its first appearance on earth, not with the arrival of the Homo sapiens that we know today, but with a little 90 pound animal, but still was using his hands for walking that made the first stone tools. And how we evolved from that creature that toolmaker to become the creature's biological and anatomical and physiological let alone the rest, creatures that we are today is very difficult to find in the record of nature, because the intervening ancestors along the line that made man lived along the shores of the oceans and along the shores of rivers and lakes. The geologically, the most active portions of the earth's surface, so their bones are swept away. But there was left all over the continents of the earth, especially the old world, it's only peak man arrives in the new world only about 25 or 50,000 years ago. But all over Asia and all over Africa and all over Europe the record of the evolution of the human being is left in the fossils of behavior, the stone tools. And we know today from the study of these tools that we can follow the record of increasing sophistication and capacity to work not only with stone, but with other, with other materials. And there's an article, in fact, in one of the current issues of Scientific American about the work of a scientist who was shown by micro study of the edges of the tools, what kind of materials they were used to work. And here we see the record of the evolution of culture. We see the record of the evolution of value, of purpose. We see that the human being evolved out of a capacity to form purpose, and to make tools and to form societies then. And there must have been language among these peoples on the way to man. And Homo sapiens, as we know them today appears in the record within the last 250 to 350,000 years. So out of this new knowledge, we understand that men made himself. And now in a very brief time, Homo sapiens has taken charge of evolution. The age of the mammals was only 35 million years long after the 350 million year age of the, of the reptiles. And now the age of men has begun. And it's clear that every other living thing on earth lives at our sufferance. Lives and depends upon the sanity and rationality and capacity of human society to make this planet a fit habitation for mankind. And if we fail at it, everything else will fail with us. So it's no wonder that our society should find itself in the moral confusion that it finds itself in today. We have discovered that we have taken this power in our hands after the fact and we're not ready for it. Man, the purpose forming animal must now form the purpose and future of evolution on earth. Now that is a task that none of us can leave to anybody else. No one of us can delegate to any other single person or institution or to any mythology or to any ready-made fantasy or received absolute from the past. This is a personal responsibility that now weighs on every single individual human being on earth. And above all if we we're to be with the of this enormous power that we've taken in our hands and succeed in its exercise, we must keep open the frontiers of rational understanding and of scientific inquiry. So that takes me back to Ben Franklin and his contemporaries. And to the misgivings about the scientific enterprise that are so widespread in our society. Whatever else we think about it I wanna urge us to consider it, at closer range in connection with the grounds of our liberties, as self-governing citizens. We the people ordain the constitution of our country. And not as an afterthought, but in reaffirmation of our sovereignty, the people of this country amended it immediately. With the First Amendment that enjoins Congress to make no laws, abridging the freedom of speech. And by implication, the freedom of conscience, the freedom of inquiry. The author is understood that freedom to be absolute. Not compromised by the claims of any competing interests. Not even national security. They understood that to be the foundations of all deputies because it was out of that kind of inquiry that came the possibility of creating a self-governing democracy. In our time that has required a marvelous political philosopher named Alexander Meiklejohn who was at the University of Wisconsin in the last years of his life. Who lived more than half of the life of our Republic when he died, by the time he died at the age of 94, about 20 years ago. To remind his contemporaries and us that free speech free inquiry is the essence of self-government. It was Meiklejohn who first specified the paradoxical duality of our citizenship. We all at once governors and governed. When, as governors, we take up the burdens of the public business. Our sovereign right to speak and, to hear is sanctioned by the unambiguous language of the First Amendment. We spend most of our lives, however, as people governed. That is engaged in the pursuit of our private interests and ambitions. In this lesser of our two roles as citizens, we are quite properly subject to the laws that we elect the Congress to write. Our freedom in this case and in that role is protected only by the Fifth Amendment. Which gives the powers of the government the power to take from us, our property and our Liberty providing it is done by due process of law. That's the Fifth Amendment. Now at this point, I have to concede that this Meiklejohn view of our freedom is not the law of our land. The First Amendment didn't get before the United States Supreme Court until after the First World War, till after our country had joined the anarchy of nations. This was in something called the Schenck case. A case that involved the spoken and written obs opposition to the Draft Act of the First World War. And you know, who wrote the Supreme Court's opinion upholding the conviction of Schenck? That was Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes. And it was in that case that he propounded the \"clear and present danger\" doctrine. The \"clear and present danger\" doctrine puts freedom of speech in one pan of the scales of justice to be weighed against the requirements of national security in the other, and removes from it, the absolute sanction with which it was written into the constitution. The famous Yankee from Olympus is much better known for his descent and the case where he invoked the same doctrine of \"clear and present danger,\" against the conviction of a man for the same offense. The difference was that by that time Louis Brandeis had arrived on the court beside him and the best men on the court since have been trying to back away from that doctrine. But by that time, Oliver Wendell Holmes had done his worst and his misunderstanding of the nature of our citizenship is not only the law of our land but it's celebrated as a popular ideal. His Yankee eloquence on behalf of the freedom of the speaker , his proposition in the marketplace totally confuses the right of the sovereign to speak, with the interest of a private party in getting his proposition sold to the legislature. let's say. As Meiklejohn said, the primary purpose of the First Amendment is that all citizens shall so far as possible, understand the issues that bear upon our common life. That's why no idea, no opinion no relevant information may be kept from them. Now the work of the scientist, of the scholar devoted to the enlargement of human understanding is supremely public business. And so it is covered by the First Amendment. It is in fact, the sovereign exercise of the right of intellectual freedom, that it's propounded in that amendment. And free inquiry as we know from the history of our country has immense practical consequences when it's turned to the promoting of useful knowledge. In the words of Thomas Jefferson, and he was the third president of the Philosophical Society as well as the third president of the United States. He said, \"As long as we may think as we will and speak as we think, the condition of men will proceed in improvement.\" And after two centuries, we can see how the improvement and the condition of man has extended the suffrage. First of all, to all white adults, then to all black and white adults with the Fourteenth Amendment. And finally to the better half of our society with the Twentieth Amendment. The percolation of material security and improvement in material circumstances to the entire society is what brings everybody in to the exercise of suffrage to the exercise of sovereignty. Acquaintance with that history, ought to teach us that science is concerned, not alone with means, but with the ends and purposes of human existence, with human value, as much as with, as with means. So the proposal that limits be set on scientific inquiry has to be understood as calling for limit, for limits upon the public freedom of citizenship. It requires a surrender of our sovereignty to some agency of the government, which to that extent the citizenry would cease to govern. The extension of the balancing doctrine of \"clear and present danger,\" to scientific inquiry strikes at the practice, as well as at the principle of self-government. It is no coincidence that scientific enterprise and the democratic revolution have come forward in history together. A scientist can recognize no authority, but his own judgment. On the choice of his question, on the design of his experiment, the evaluation of his evidence he must make his own independent determinations. This kind of work in the words of the physicist, Percy Bridgman, \"Is as private as my toothache.\" And it is that autonomy in the scientist that gives pragmatic sanction to the sanctity of the individual that makes us all free and equal. But now there's another paradox. The individualistic enterprise of science turns out to be at the same time an intensely social enterprise. The public nature of the work is I as established by the identity of the doing of it with its publication. Work and science, doesn't win verification and it doesn't win even the distinction of disproof until it's been published, and he's challenge, the interest of the community of scientists. And science is not to you , quote a phrase from J. Bernacki, \"A loose-leaf notebook.\" The talk of an information explosion totally misses the true nature of the enterprise. Which is the embracing of ever larger and smaller reaches of nature in a single coherent web of understanding. And the worth of any scientist's work is measured by the degree to which that work stresses and reorders the context in which it is done. The degree to which it eliminates the work of predecessors and reorders it and sets the task for successors in the field. As an example, General Leslie Groves was in charge of the Manhattan Project during the second World War. In the name of national security, he tried to compartmentalize every section of the project. And to bring communication between the scientists in each section, in each department to an end, so that the big secret whatever it was in his mind, wouldn't get out. But the fact is that even with all the effort General Groves and his staff put into that that nothing was ever accomplished in the project out of the knowledge of all of the participants and even of scientists outside. They could read one another's minds because they understood the context in which they were working. For example, the official computation of the chance that the first bomb at Alamogordo might catalyze the combustion of the nitrogen in the air by the oxygen in the air was, a finite possibility. And it was calculated, that was one of the first tasks set for the first big computer installed at Los Alamos. And it was found by that computer to be satisfactorily a number of places to right of the decimal point. But that calculation in that computer was done on backs of envelopes all over this land. By every physicist who had any knowledge of what was going on. And the conclusion that the chance was infinitesimal was very solidly ballasted by the redundancy of independent calculations. And so the chance, so while the chance that cabal of crazy geniuses could otherwise have carried out the experiment may not have been equally infinitesimal. It was securely contained in the openness of the scientific community. The moratorium that was called on the DNA work on the DM, recombinant DNA work at its very beginnings reflected the same contextual understanding in the open community of scientists in that field. And so against the nameless, the fears of nameless evils arising from the scientific enterprise, I think we can place great confidence in the social constitution of the enterprise. Greater confidence, certainly in that social constitution than in any limits that might be exposed by any external agency. Attempts to play science under such external control, in fact, give us in recent history the most ugly instances of the kind of tyranny against which the scientific enterprise itself stands. The Nazi doctors that are so often cited as the horrendous example of what runaway mad geniuses can do are convicted of their beastility by the entire irrelevance of their foul acts to the work of science. The work of science, which in this generation since the war, has so totally transformed man's vision of his identity. Similarly, the establishment in Russia of the overlord ship of Trofím Lysenko by the crazy dictator Stalin over Soviet scientific, agriculture, in supporting scientific apparatus of its cyber culture and above all of its genetics brought, brought a whole establishment down in shambles. And the Russians today are importing the wheat from our Prairies out of the wreckage in shambles of the, of the, of the supporting intellectual apparatus that a society has to have to maintain a modern agriculture. People in our country today who called for the imposition of some external control system on the scientific enterprise must recognize therefore that they are tampering with the moral and pragmatic foundations of our freedom and of our welfare. The fact that they are surprised upon their belated discovery, that there are supreme issues in scientific research, reflects their failure as citizens hitherto to keep themselves informed on important public business. If they had to contribute constructively to science policy they had best cure themselves of the defect in their intellection, that refers questions of truth to science and questions of value to some other some other increasingly unspecifiable authority. I would urge us all to understand that scientists are also citizens. Then they are the members of the electorate who are best qualified to frame science policy. On questions of the hazards that may attend research, they will necessarily be the first to recognize such hazards and to provide societies first line of defense against them. With respect to the propriety of research enterprises they opened polity of science surely provides the strongest institutional restraint upon irresponsible and reprehensible individuals. They have of course the obligation to inform their fellow citizens of the nature and implications of their work. And we have in the recombinant DNA story a historic example, of the natural recognition in that community of that social obligation. And the obligation to invite as they did the participation of citizens who take them whom, themselves take the trouble to make themselves responsibly informed. In this controversy over where we go from here with work on deeper understanding of the genetic apparatus and its application to the solution of urgent human material problems. I think that the community of geneticists has given us a marvelous working, working example of the process of self-government. An example that I would hope we will see repeated in the management of our larger society in the years to come. I thank you. You have all been good enough to give me the floor for an hour, if there are dead cats, vegetables and an uncertain state of decay that you wanna fire down here or questions, I'm here.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://iastate.aviaryplatform.com/collections/1150/collection_resources/45439/file/118397#t=0.0,3766.51755"}]}]}]}